Contents
1 Path Integrals 11
1.1 Quantum Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2 Choice of the Picture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3 Formal Solution of the Equations of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4 Example: The Free Particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.5 The Feynman-Kac Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.6 The Path Integral for the Harmonic Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.7 Some Rules for Path Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.8 The Schr¨odinger Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.9 Potential Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.10 Generating functional for Vacuum Expectation Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.11 Bosons and Fermions, and what else? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2 Nonrelativistic Many-Particle Theory 37
2.1 The Fock Space Representation of Quantum Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3 Canonical Field Quantisation 41
3.1 Space and Time in Special Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2 Tensors and Scalar Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3 Noether’s Theorem (Classical Part) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.4 Canonical Quantisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.5 The Most Simple Interacting Field Theory: 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.6 The LSZ Reduction Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.7 The Dyson-Wick Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.8 Wick’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.9 The Feynman Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4 Relativistic Quantum Fields 75
4.1 Causal Massive Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.1.1 Massive Vector Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3
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4.1.2 Massive Spin-1/2 Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.2 Causal Massless Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.2.1 Massless Vector Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.2.2 Massless Helicity 1/2 Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.3 Quantisation and the Spin-Statistics Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.3.1 Quantisation of the spin-1/2 Dirac Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.4 Discrete Symmetries and the CPT Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.4.1 Charge Conjugation for Dirac spinors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.4.2 Time Reversal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.4.3 Parity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.4.4 Lorentz Classification of Bilinear Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.4.5 The CPT Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.4.6 Remark on Strictly Neutral Spin–1/2–Fermions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.5 Path Integral Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.5.1 Example: The Free Scalar Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.5.2 The Feynman Rules for 4 revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.6 Generating Functionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.6.1 LSZ Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.6.2 The equivalence theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.6.3 Generating Functional for Connected Green’s Functions . . . . . . . . 111
4.6.4 Effective Action and Vertex Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.6.5 Noether’s Theorem (Quantum Part) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.6.6 ~-Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.7 A Simple Interacting Field Theory with Fermions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5 Renormalisation 129
5.1 Infinities and how to cure them . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.1.1 Overview over the renormalisation procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.2 Wick rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.3 Dimensional regularisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.3.1 The -function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.3.2 Spherical coordinates in d dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.3.3 Standard-integrals for Feynman integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
5.4 The 4-point vertex correction at 1-loop order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.5 Power counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5.6 The setting-sun diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.7 Weinberg’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.7.1 Proof of Weinberg’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
4
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5.7.2 Proof of the Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
5.8 Application of Weinberg’s Theorem to Feynman diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . 170
5.9 BPH-Renormalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
5.9.1 Some examples of the method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
5.9.2 The general BPH-formalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
5.10 Zimmermann’s forest formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
5.11 Global linear symmetries and renormalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
5.11.1 Example: 1-loop renormalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
5.12 Renormalisation group equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
5.12.1 Homogeneous RGEs and modified BPHZ renormalisation . . . . . . . 189
5.12.2 The homogeneous RGE and dimensional regularisation . . . . . . . . . 192
5.12.3 Solutions to the homogeneous RGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
5.12.4 Independence of the S-Matrix from the renormalisation scale . . . . . 195
5.13 Asymptotic behaviour of vertex functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
5.13.1 The Gell-Mann-Low equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
5.13.2 The Callan-Symanzik equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6 Quantum Electrodynamics 203
6.1 Gauge Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
6.2 Matter Fields interacting with Photons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
6.3 Canonical Path Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.4 Invariant Cross Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
6.5 Tree level calculations of some physical processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
6.5.1 Compton Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
6.5.2 Annihilation of an e−e+-pair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
6.6 The Background Field Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
6.6.1 The background field method for non-gauge theories . . . . . . . . . . 224
6.6.2 Gauge theories and background fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
6.6.3 Renormalisability of the effective action in background field gauge . . 228
7 Nonabelian Gauge fields 233
7.1 The principle of local gauge invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
7.2 Quantisation of nonabelian gauge field theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
7.2.1 BRST-Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
7.2.2 Gauge independence of the S-matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
7.3 Renormalisability of nonabelian gauge theories in BFG . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
7.3.1 The symmetry properties in the background field gauge . . . . . . . . 244
7.3.2 The BFG Feynman rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
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7.4 Renormalisability of nonabelian gauge theories (BRST) . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
7.4.1 The Ward-Takahashi identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
A Variational Calculus and Functional Methods 255
A.1 The Fundamental Lemma of Variational Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
A.2 Functional Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
B The Symmetry of Space and Time 261
B.1 The Lorentz Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
B.2 Representations of the Lorentz Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
B.3 Representations of the Full Lorentz Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
B.4 Unitary Representations of the Poincar´e Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
B.4.1 The Massive States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
B.4.2 Massless Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
B.5 The Invariant Scalar Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
C Formulae 283
C.1 Amplitudes for various free fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
C.2 Dimensional regularised Feynman-integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
C.3 Laurent expansion of the -Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
C.4 Feynman’s Parameterisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Bibliography 287
1 Path Integrals 11
1.1 Quantum Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2 Choice of the Picture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3 Formal Solution of the Equations of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4 Example: The Free Particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.5 The Feynman-Kac Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.6 The Path Integral for the Harmonic Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.7 Some Rules for Path Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.8 The Schr¨odinger Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.9 Potential Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.10 Generating functional for Vacuum Expectation Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.11 Bosons and Fermions, and what else? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2 Nonrelativistic Many-Particle Theory 37
2.1 The Fock Space Representation of Quantum Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3 Canonical Field Quantisation 41
3.1 Space and Time in Special Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2 Tensors and Scalar Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3 Noether’s Theorem (Classical Part) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.4 Canonical Quantisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.5 The Most Simple Interacting Field Theory: 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.6 The LSZ Reduction Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.7 The Dyson-Wick Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.8 Wick’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.9 The Feynman Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4 Relativistic Quantum Fields 75
4.1 Causal Massive Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.1.1 Massive Vector Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
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Contents
4.1.2 Massive Spin-1/2 Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.2 Causal Massless Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.2.1 Massless Vector Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.2.2 Massless Helicity 1/2 Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.3 Quantisation and the Spin-Statistics Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.3.1 Quantisation of the spin-1/2 Dirac Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.4 Discrete Symmetries and the CPT Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.4.1 Charge Conjugation for Dirac spinors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.4.2 Time Reversal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.4.3 Parity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.4.4 Lorentz Classification of Bilinear Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.4.5 The CPT Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.4.6 Remark on Strictly Neutral Spin–1/2–Fermions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.5 Path Integral Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.5.1 Example: The Free Scalar Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.5.2 The Feynman Rules for 4 revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.6 Generating Functionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.6.1 LSZ Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.6.2 The equivalence theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.6.3 Generating Functional for Connected Green’s Functions . . . . . . . . 111
4.6.4 Effective Action and Vertex Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.6.5 Noether’s Theorem (Quantum Part) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.6.6 ~-Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.7 A Simple Interacting Field Theory with Fermions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5 Renormalisation 129
5.1 Infinities and how to cure them . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.1.1 Overview over the renormalisation procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.2 Wick rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.3 Dimensional regularisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.3.1 The -function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.3.2 Spherical coordinates in d dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.3.3 Standard-integrals for Feynman integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
5.4 The 4-point vertex correction at 1-loop order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.5 Power counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5.6 The setting-sun diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.7 Weinberg’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.7.1 Proof of Weinberg’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
4
Contents
5.7.2 Proof of the Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
5.8 Application of Weinberg’s Theorem to Feynman diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . 170
5.9 BPH-Renormalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
5.9.1 Some examples of the method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
5.9.2 The general BPH-formalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
5.10 Zimmermann’s forest formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
5.11 Global linear symmetries and renormalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
5.11.1 Example: 1-loop renormalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
5.12 Renormalisation group equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
5.12.1 Homogeneous RGEs and modified BPHZ renormalisation . . . . . . . 189
5.12.2 The homogeneous RGE and dimensional regularisation . . . . . . . . . 192
5.12.3 Solutions to the homogeneous RGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
5.12.4 Independence of the S-Matrix from the renormalisation scale . . . . . 195
5.13 Asymptotic behaviour of vertex functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
5.13.1 The Gell-Mann-Low equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
5.13.2 The Callan-Symanzik equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6 Quantum Electrodynamics 203
6.1 Gauge Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
6.2 Matter Fields interacting with Photons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
6.3 Canonical Path Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.4 Invariant Cross Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
6.5 Tree level calculations of some physical processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
6.5.1 Compton Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
6.5.2 Annihilation of an e−e+-pair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
6.6 The Background Field Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
6.6.1 The background field method for non-gauge theories . . . . . . . . . . 224
6.6.2 Gauge theories and background fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
6.6.3 Renormalisability of the effective action in background field gauge . . 228
7 Nonabelian Gauge fields 233
7.1 The principle of local gauge invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
7.2 Quantisation of nonabelian gauge field theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
7.2.1 BRST-Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
7.2.2 Gauge independence of the S-matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
7.3 Renormalisability of nonabelian gauge theories in BFG . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
7.3.1 The symmetry properties in the background field gauge . . . . . . . . 244
7.3.2 The BFG Feynman rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
5
Contents
7.4 Renormalisability of nonabelian gauge theories (BRST) . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
7.4.1 The Ward-Takahashi identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
A Variational Calculus and Functional Methods 255
A.1 The Fundamental Lemma of Variational Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
A.2 Functional Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
B The Symmetry of Space and Time 261
B.1 The Lorentz Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
B.2 Representations of the Lorentz Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
B.3 Representations of the Full Lorentz Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
B.4 Unitary Representations of the Poincar´e Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
B.4.1 The Massive States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
B.4.2 Massless Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
B.5 The Invariant Scalar Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
C Formulae 283
C.1 Amplitudes for various free fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
C.2 Dimensional regularised Feynman-integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
C.3 Laurent expansion of the -Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
C.4 Feynman’s Parameterisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Bibliography 287
Preface
The following is a script, which tries to collect and extend some ideas about Quantum Field
Theory for the International Student Programs at GSI.
We start in the first chapter with some facts known from ordinary nonrelativistic quantum
mechanics. We emphasise the picture of the evolution of quantum systems in space and time.
The aim was to introduce the functional methods of path integrals on hand of the familiar
framework of nonrelativistic quantum theory.
In this introductory chapter it was my goal to keep the story as simple as possible. Thus
all problems concerning operator ordering or interaction with electromagnetic fields were
omitted. All these topics will be treated in terms of quantum field theory beginning with in
the third chapter.
The second chapter is not yet written completely. It will be short and is intended to contain
the vacuum many-body theory for nonrelativistic particles given as a quantum many-particle
theory. It is shown that the same theory can be obtained by using the field quantisation
method (which was often called “the second quantisation”, but this is on my opinion a very
misleading term). I intend to work out the most simple applications to the hydrogen atom
including bound states and exact scattering theory.
In the third chapter we start with the classical principles of special relativity as are Lorentz
covariance, the action principle in the covariant Lagrangian formulation but introduce only
scalar fields to keep the stuff quite easy since there is only one field degree of freedom. The
classical part of the chapter ends with a discussion of Noether’s theorem which is on the
heart of our approach to observables which are defined from conserved currents caused by
symmetries of space and time as well as by intrinsic symmetries of the fields.
After that introduction to classical relativistic field theory we quantise the free fields ending
with a sketch about the nowadays well established facts of relativistic quantum theory: It
is necessarily a many-body theory, because there is no possibility for a Schr¨odinger-like oneparticle
theory. The physical reason is simply the possibility of creation and annihilation
of particle-antiparticle pairs (pair creation). It will come out that for a local quantum field
theory the Hamiltonian of the free particles is bounded from below for the quantised field
theory only if we quantise it with bosonic commutation relations. This is a special case of
the famous spin-statistics theorem.
Then we show how to treat 4 theory as the most simple example of an interacting field theory
with help of perturbation theory, prove Wick’s theorem and the LSZ-reduction formula. The
goal of this chapter is a derivation of the perturbative Feynman-diagram rules. The chapter
ends with the sad result that diagrams containing loops do not exist since the integrals are
divergent. This difficulty is solved by renormalisation theory which will be treated later on
7
Preface
in this notes.
The fourth chapter starts with a systematic treatment of relativistic invariant theory using
appendix B which contains the complete mathematical treatment of the representation theory
of the Poincar´e group as far as it is necessary for physics. We shall treat in this chapter at
length the Dirac field which describes particles with spin 1/2. With help of the Poincar´e
group theory and some simple physical axioms this leads to the important results of quantum
field theory as there are the spin-statistics and the PCT theorem.
The rest of the chapter contains the foundations of path integrals for quantum field theories.
Hereby we shall find the methods learnt in chapter 1 helpful. This contains also the
path integral formalism for fermions which needs a short introduction to the mathematics of
Grassmann numbers.
After setting up these facts we shall rederive the perturbation theory, which we have found
with help of Wick’s theorem in chapter 3 from the operator formalism. We shall use from
the very beginning the diagrams as a very intuitive technique for book-keeping of the rather
involved (but in a purely technical sense) functional derivatives of the generating functional
for Green’s functions. On the other hand we shall also illustrate the ,,digram-less” derivation
of the ~-expansion which corresponds to the number of loops in the diagrams.
We shall also give a complete proof of the theorems about generating functionals for subclasses
of diagrams, namely the connected Green’s functions and the proper vertex functions.
We end the chapter with the derivation of the Feynman rules for a simple toy theory involving
a Dirac spin 1/2 Fermi field with the now completely developed functional (path integral)
technique. As will come out quite straight forwardly, the only difference compared to the pure
boson case are some sign rules for fermion lines and diagrams containing a closed fermion
loop, coming from the fact that we have anticommuting Grassmann numbers for the fermions
rather than commuting c-numbers for the bosons.
The fifth chapter is devoted to QED including the most simple physical applications at treelevel.
From the very beginning we shall take the gauge theoretical point of view. Gauge
theories have proved to be the most important class of field theories, including the Standard
Model of elementary particles. So we use from the very beginning the modern techniques to
quantise the theory with help of formal path integral manipulations known as Faddeev-Popov
quantisation in a certain class of covariant gauges. We shall also derive the very important
Ward-Takahashi identities. As an alternative we shall also formulate the background field
gauge which is a manifestly gauge invariant procedure.
Nevertheless QED is not only the most simple example of a physically very relevant quantum
field theory but gives also the possibility to show the formalism of all the techniques needed
to go beyond tree level calculations, i.e. regularisation and renormalisation of Quantum
Field Theories. We shall do this with use of appendix C, which contains the foundations
of dimensional regularisation which will be used as the main regularisation scheme in these
notes. It has the great advantage to keep the theory gauge-invariant and is quite easy to
handle (compared with other schemes as, for instance, Pauli-Villars). We use these techniques
to calculate the classical one-loop results, including the lowest order contribution to the
anomalous magnetic moment of the electron.
I plan to end the chapter with some calculations concerning the hydrogen atom (Lamb shift)
by making use of the Schwinger equations of motion which is in some sense the relativistic
refinement of the calculations shown in chapter 2 but with the important fact that now we
8
Preface
include the quantisation of the electromagnetic fields and radiation corrections.
There are also planned some appendices containing some purely mathematical material needed
in the main parts.
Appendix A introduces some very basic facts about functionals and variational calculus.
Appendix B has grown a little lengthy, but on the other hand I think it is useful to write
down all the stuff about the representation theory of the Poincar´e groups. In a way it may
be seen as a simplification of Wigner’s famous paper from 1939.
Appendix C is devoted to a simple treatment of dimensional regularisation techniques. It’s
also longer than in the most text books on the topic. This comes from my experience that it’s
rather hard to learn all the mathematics out of many sources and to put all this together. So
my intention in writing appendix C was again to put all the mathematics needed together. I
don’t know if there is a shorter way to obtain all this. The only things needed later on in the
notes when we calculate simple radiation corrections are the formula in the last section of the
appendix. But to repeat it again, the intention of appendix C is to derive them. The only
thing we need to know very well to do this, is the analytic structure of the -functions well
known in mathematics since the famous work of the 18th and 19th century mathematicians
Euler and Gauss. So the properties of the -function are derived completely using only basic
knowledge from a good complex analysis course. It cannot be overemphasised, that all these
techniques of holomorphic functions is one of the most important tools used in physics!
Although I tried not to make too many mathematical mistakes in these notes we use the physicist’s
robust calculus methods without paying too much attention to mathematical rigour.
On the other hand I tried to be exact at places whenever it seemed necessary to me. It should
be said in addition that the mathematical techniques used here are by no means the state of
the art from the mathematician’s point of view. So there is not made use of modern notation
such as of manifolds, alternating differential forms (Cartan formalism), Lie groups, fibre
bundles etc., but nevertheless the spirit is a geometrical picture of physics in the meaning of
Felix Klein’s “Erlanger Programm”: One should seek for the symmetries in the mathematical
structure, that means, the groups of transformations of the mathematical objects which leave
this mathematical structure unchanged.
The symmetry principles are indeed at the heart of modern physics and are the strongest
leaders in the direction towards a complete understanding of nature beyond quantum field
theory and the standard model of elementary particles.
I hope the reader of my notes will have as much fun as I had when I wrote them!
Last but not least I come to the acknowledgements. First to mention are Robert Roth and
Christoph Appel who gave me their various book style hackings for making it as nice looking
as it is.
Also Thomas Neff has contributed by his nice definition of the operators with the tilde below
the symbol and much help with all mysteries of the computer system(s) used while preparing
the script.
Christoph Appel was always discussing with me about the hot topics of QFT like getting
symmetry factors of diagrams and the proper use of Feynman rules for various types of
QFTs. He was also carefully reading the script and has corrected many spelling errors.
9
Preface
Literature
Finally I have to stress the fact that the lack of citations in these notes mean not that I claim
that the contents are original ideas of mine. It was just my laziness in finding out all the
references I used through my own tour through the literature and learning of quantum field
theory.
I just cite some of the textbooks I found most illuminating during the preparation of these
notes: For the fundamentals there exist a lot of textbooks of very different quality. For me the
most important were [PS95, Wei95, Wei95, Kak93]. Concerning gauge theories some of the
clearest sources of textbook or review character are [Tay76, AL73, FLS72, Kug97, LZJ72a,
LZJ72b, LZJ72c]. One of the most difficult topics in quantum field theory is the question of
renormalisation. Except the already mentioned textbooks here I found the original papers
very important, some of them are [BP57, Wei60, Zim68, Zim69, Zim70]. A very nice and
concise monograph of this topic is [Col86]. Whenever I was aware of an eprint-URL I cited it
too, so that one can access these papers as easily as possible.
The following is a script, which tries to collect and extend some ideas about Quantum Field
Theory for the International Student Programs at GSI.
We start in the first chapter with some facts known from ordinary nonrelativistic quantum
mechanics. We emphasise the picture of the evolution of quantum systems in space and time.
The aim was to introduce the functional methods of path integrals on hand of the familiar
framework of nonrelativistic quantum theory.
In this introductory chapter it was my goal to keep the story as simple as possible. Thus
all problems concerning operator ordering or interaction with electromagnetic fields were
omitted. All these topics will be treated in terms of quantum field theory beginning with in
the third chapter.
The second chapter is not yet written completely. It will be short and is intended to contain
the vacuum many-body theory for nonrelativistic particles given as a quantum many-particle
theory. It is shown that the same theory can be obtained by using the field quantisation
method (which was often called “the second quantisation”, but this is on my opinion a very
misleading term). I intend to work out the most simple applications to the hydrogen atom
including bound states and exact scattering theory.
In the third chapter we start with the classical principles of special relativity as are Lorentz
covariance, the action principle in the covariant Lagrangian formulation but introduce only
scalar fields to keep the stuff quite easy since there is only one field degree of freedom. The
classical part of the chapter ends with a discussion of Noether’s theorem which is on the
heart of our approach to observables which are defined from conserved currents caused by
symmetries of space and time as well as by intrinsic symmetries of the fields.
After that introduction to classical relativistic field theory we quantise the free fields ending
with a sketch about the nowadays well established facts of relativistic quantum theory: It
is necessarily a many-body theory, because there is no possibility for a Schr¨odinger-like oneparticle
theory. The physical reason is simply the possibility of creation and annihilation
of particle-antiparticle pairs (pair creation). It will come out that for a local quantum field
theory the Hamiltonian of the free particles is bounded from below for the quantised field
theory only if we quantise it with bosonic commutation relations. This is a special case of
the famous spin-statistics theorem.
Then we show how to treat 4 theory as the most simple example of an interacting field theory
with help of perturbation theory, prove Wick’s theorem and the LSZ-reduction formula. The
goal of this chapter is a derivation of the perturbative Feynman-diagram rules. The chapter
ends with the sad result that diagrams containing loops do not exist since the integrals are
divergent. This difficulty is solved by renormalisation theory which will be treated later on
7
Preface
in this notes.
The fourth chapter starts with a systematic treatment of relativistic invariant theory using
appendix B which contains the complete mathematical treatment of the representation theory
of the Poincar´e group as far as it is necessary for physics. We shall treat in this chapter at
length the Dirac field which describes particles with spin 1/2. With help of the Poincar´e
group theory and some simple physical axioms this leads to the important results of quantum
field theory as there are the spin-statistics and the PCT theorem.
The rest of the chapter contains the foundations of path integrals for quantum field theories.
Hereby we shall find the methods learnt in chapter 1 helpful. This contains also the
path integral formalism for fermions which needs a short introduction to the mathematics of
Grassmann numbers.
After setting up these facts we shall rederive the perturbation theory, which we have found
with help of Wick’s theorem in chapter 3 from the operator formalism. We shall use from
the very beginning the diagrams as a very intuitive technique for book-keeping of the rather
involved (but in a purely technical sense) functional derivatives of the generating functional
for Green’s functions. On the other hand we shall also illustrate the ,,digram-less” derivation
of the ~-expansion which corresponds to the number of loops in the diagrams.
We shall also give a complete proof of the theorems about generating functionals for subclasses
of diagrams, namely the connected Green’s functions and the proper vertex functions.
We end the chapter with the derivation of the Feynman rules for a simple toy theory involving
a Dirac spin 1/2 Fermi field with the now completely developed functional (path integral)
technique. As will come out quite straight forwardly, the only difference compared to the pure
boson case are some sign rules for fermion lines and diagrams containing a closed fermion
loop, coming from the fact that we have anticommuting Grassmann numbers for the fermions
rather than commuting c-numbers for the bosons.
The fifth chapter is devoted to QED including the most simple physical applications at treelevel.
From the very beginning we shall take the gauge theoretical point of view. Gauge
theories have proved to be the most important class of field theories, including the Standard
Model of elementary particles. So we use from the very beginning the modern techniques to
quantise the theory with help of formal path integral manipulations known as Faddeev-Popov
quantisation in a certain class of covariant gauges. We shall also derive the very important
Ward-Takahashi identities. As an alternative we shall also formulate the background field
gauge which is a manifestly gauge invariant procedure.
Nevertheless QED is not only the most simple example of a physically very relevant quantum
field theory but gives also the possibility to show the formalism of all the techniques needed
to go beyond tree level calculations, i.e. regularisation and renormalisation of Quantum
Field Theories. We shall do this with use of appendix C, which contains the foundations
of dimensional regularisation which will be used as the main regularisation scheme in these
notes. It has the great advantage to keep the theory gauge-invariant and is quite easy to
handle (compared with other schemes as, for instance, Pauli-Villars). We use these techniques
to calculate the classical one-loop results, including the lowest order contribution to the
anomalous magnetic moment of the electron.
I plan to end the chapter with some calculations concerning the hydrogen atom (Lamb shift)
by making use of the Schwinger equations of motion which is in some sense the relativistic
refinement of the calculations shown in chapter 2 but with the important fact that now we
8
Preface
include the quantisation of the electromagnetic fields and radiation corrections.
There are also planned some appendices containing some purely mathematical material needed
in the main parts.
Appendix A introduces some very basic facts about functionals and variational calculus.
Appendix B has grown a little lengthy, but on the other hand I think it is useful to write
down all the stuff about the representation theory of the Poincar´e groups. In a way it may
be seen as a simplification of Wigner’s famous paper from 1939.
Appendix C is devoted to a simple treatment of dimensional regularisation techniques. It’s
also longer than in the most text books on the topic. This comes from my experience that it’s
rather hard to learn all the mathematics out of many sources and to put all this together. So
my intention in writing appendix C was again to put all the mathematics needed together. I
don’t know if there is a shorter way to obtain all this. The only things needed later on in the
notes when we calculate simple radiation corrections are the formula in the last section of the
appendix. But to repeat it again, the intention of appendix C is to derive them. The only
thing we need to know very well to do this, is the analytic structure of the -functions well
known in mathematics since the famous work of the 18th and 19th century mathematicians
Euler and Gauss. So the properties of the -function are derived completely using only basic
knowledge from a good complex analysis course. It cannot be overemphasised, that all these
techniques of holomorphic functions is one of the most important tools used in physics!
Although I tried not to make too many mathematical mistakes in these notes we use the physicist’s
robust calculus methods without paying too much attention to mathematical rigour.
On the other hand I tried to be exact at places whenever it seemed necessary to me. It should
be said in addition that the mathematical techniques used here are by no means the state of
the art from the mathematician’s point of view. So there is not made use of modern notation
such as of manifolds, alternating differential forms (Cartan formalism), Lie groups, fibre
bundles etc., but nevertheless the spirit is a geometrical picture of physics in the meaning of
Felix Klein’s “Erlanger Programm”: One should seek for the symmetries in the mathematical
structure, that means, the groups of transformations of the mathematical objects which leave
this mathematical structure unchanged.
The symmetry principles are indeed at the heart of modern physics and are the strongest
leaders in the direction towards a complete understanding of nature beyond quantum field
theory and the standard model of elementary particles.
I hope the reader of my notes will have as much fun as I had when I wrote them!
Last but not least I come to the acknowledgements. First to mention are Robert Roth and
Christoph Appel who gave me their various book style hackings for making it as nice looking
as it is.
Also Thomas Neff has contributed by his nice definition of the operators with the tilde below
the symbol and much help with all mysteries of the computer system(s) used while preparing
the script.
Christoph Appel was always discussing with me about the hot topics of QFT like getting
symmetry factors of diagrams and the proper use of Feynman rules for various types of
QFTs. He was also carefully reading the script and has corrected many spelling errors.
9
Preface
Literature
Finally I have to stress the fact that the lack of citations in these notes mean not that I claim
that the contents are original ideas of mine. It was just my laziness in finding out all the
references I used through my own tour through the literature and learning of quantum field
theory.
I just cite some of the textbooks I found most illuminating during the preparation of these
notes: For the fundamentals there exist a lot of textbooks of very different quality. For me the
most important were [PS95, Wei95, Wei95, Kak93]. Concerning gauge theories some of the
clearest sources of textbook or review character are [Tay76, AL73, FLS72, Kug97, LZJ72a,
LZJ72b, LZJ72c]. One of the most difficult topics in quantum field theory is the question of
renormalisation. Except the already mentioned textbooks here I found the original papers
very important, some of them are [BP57, Wei60, Zim68, Zim69, Zim70]. A very nice and
concise monograph of this topic is [Col86]. Whenever I was aware of an eprint-URL I cited it
too, so that one can access these papers as easily as possible.
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