Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1. A Bit of History
1.2. Approach to Subject
1.3. Outline of Book
Chapter 2 Preliminaries: Definitions and Paraxial Optics
2.1. Sign Conventions
2.2. Paraxial Equation for Refraction
2.3. Paraxial Equation for Reflection
2.4. Two-Surface Refracting Elements
2.5. Two-Mirror Telescopes
2.6. Stops and Pupils
2.7. Concluding Remarks
Bibliography
Chapter 3 Fermat's Principle: An Introduction
3.1. Fermat's Principle in General
3.2. Fermat's Principle and Refracting Surfaces
3.3. Wave Interpretation of Fermat's Principle
3.4. Fermat's Principle and Reflecting Surfaces
3.5. Conic Sections
3.6. Fermat's Principle and the Atmosphere
3.7. Concluding Remarks
References
Bibliography
Chapter 4 Introduction to Aberrations
4.1. Reflecting Conies and Focal Length
4.2. Spherical Aberration
4.3. Reflecting Conies and Finite Object Distance
4.4. Off-Axis Aberrations
4.5. Aberration Compensation
References
Bibliography
Chapter 5 Fermat's Principle and Aberrations
5.1. Application to Surface of Revolution
5.2. Evaluation of Aberration Coefficients
5.3. Ray and Wavefront Aberrations
5.4. Summary of Aberration Results, Stop at Surface
5.5. Aberrations for Displaced Stop
5.6. Aberrations for Multisurface Systems
5.7. Curvature of Field
5.8. Aberrations for Decentered Pupil
5.9. Concluding Remarks
Appendix A: Comparison with Seidel Theory
References
Bibliography
Chapter 6 Reflecting Telescopes
6.1. Paraboloid
6.2. Two-Mirror Telescopes
6.3. Alignment Errors in Two-Mirror Telescopes
6.4. Three-Mirror Telescopes
6.5. Four-Mirror Telescopes
6.6. Concluding Remarks
References
Bibliography
Chapter 7 Schmidt Telescopes and Cameras
7.1. General Schmidt Configuration
7.2. Characteristics of Aspheric Plate
7.3. Schmidt Telescope Example
7.4. Achromatic Schmidt Telescope
7.5. Solid- and Semisolid-Schmidt Cameras
References
Bibliography
Chapter 8 Catadioptric Telescopes and Cameras
8.1. Schmidt-Cassegrain Telescopes
8.2. Cameras with Meniscus Correctors
8.3. All-Reflecting Wide-Field Systems
References
Chapter 9 Auxiliary Optics for Telescopes
9.1. Field Lenses, Flatteners
9.2. Prime Focus Correctors
9.3. Cassegrain Focus Correctors
9.4. Cassegrain Focal Reducers
9.5. Atmospheric Dispersion Correctors
9.6. Fiber Optics
References
Bibliography
Chapter 10 Diffraction Theory and Aberrations
10.1. Huygens-Fresnel Principle
10.2. Perfect Image: Circular Aperture
10.3. The Near Perfect Image
10.4. Comparison: Geometric Aberrations and the Diffraction Limit
10.5. Diffraction Integrals and Fourier Theory
References
Bibliography
Chapter 11 Transfer Functions; Hubble Space Telescope
11.1. Transfer Functions and Image Characteristics
11.2. Hubble Space Telescope, Prelaunch Expectations
11.3. Hubble Space Telescope, Postlaunch Reality
11.4. Concluding Remarks
References
Bibliography
Chapter 12 Spectrometry: Definitions and Basic Principles
12.1. Introduction and Definitions
12.2. Slit Spectrometers
12.3. Fiber-Fed Spectrometers
12.4. Slitless Spectrometers
12.5. Spectrometers in Diffraction Limit
References
Bibliography
Chapter 13 Dispersing Elements and Systems
13.1. Dispersing Prism
13.2. Diffraction Grating; Basic Relations
13.3. Echelles
13.4. Grating Efficiency
13.5. Fabry-Perot Interferometer
13.6. Fourier Transform Spectrometer
13.7. Concluding Remarks
References
Bibliography
Chapter 14 Grating Aberrations; Concave Grating Spectrometers
14.1. Application of Fermat's Principle to Grating Surface
14.2. Grating Aberrations
14.3. Concave Grating Mountings
References
Bibliography
Chapter 15 Plane Grating Spectrometers
15.1. All-Reflecting Spectrometers
15.2. Pixel Matching
15.3. Fast Spectrometers
15.4. Fiber-Fed Spectrometers
15.5. Echelle Spectrometers
15.6. Nonobjective Slitless Spectrometers
15.7. Concluding Remarks
References
Bibliography
Chapter 16 Adaptive Optics: An Introduction
16.1. Effects of Atmospheric Turbulence
16.2. Correction of Wavefront Distortion
16.3. Adaptive Optics: Systems and Components
16.4. Concluding Remarks
References
Bibliography
Chapter 17 Detectors, Signal-to-Noise, and Detection Limits
17.1. Detector Characteristics
17.2. Signal-to-Noise Ratio
17.3. Detection Limits and Signal-to-Noise Ratio
17.4. Detection Limits: Stellar Photometry
17.5. Detection Limits: Spectroscopy
References
Bibliography
Chapter 18 Large Mirrors and Telescope Arrays
18.1. Large Mirrors
18.2. Telescope Arrays; Interferometers
References
Bibliography
PrefaceWhen I began thinking about and working on this second edition, it became
clear early on that substantive additions to the first edition were in order.
Although the optical principles upon which the earlier text was based have not
changed, the ingenuity and resourcefiilness of astronomers in the intervening
years have led to many exciting new instrumental developments. These developments,
in turn, have meant a greatly increased efficiency in gathering data from
celestial sources. As one example to illustrate this change, note the use of optical
fibers to feed light from a hundred or more galaxies at a time into a spectrometer,
rather than the traditional one galaxy at a time approach.
Other dramatic developments within the past decade include implementing or
planning for techniques of adaptive optics to compensate for the atmosphere, and
the almost total adoption of solid-state detectors arrays. But the biggest change of
all is only starting to become reality, that of a significant number of ground-based
telescopes of near diffraction-limited quality and apertures greater than six meters
in diameter. This greatly increased light gathering power will undoubtedly
revolutionize observational astronomy.
In view of these developments, and in response to the many comments I
received on the first edition, my thrust in this rework has been two-fold. First,
many portions of the text were rewritten or amended to make the explanations
more clear and to correct errors. In some cases this meant adding additional
material, such as spot diagrams or wavefront maps; in other cases words and
figures were removed. Second, new sections were added to many chapters and
edition has not been changed, and I hope the reader will find the changes in this
one new chapter, on adaptive optics, was added. The overall format of the first
edition to be positive ones.
As in the first edition, my intent is to emphasize basic principles of optics and
how these principles are used in the designs of specific types of instruments. The
treatment is limited to telescopes and cameras that use near-normal incidence
optics and spectrometers with dispersive elements or interferometers. Numerous
examples of system characteristics are given to illustrate the optical performance
that can be expected. An outline of the topics covered is given in Chapter 1.
The level of presentation and approach are appropriate for a graduate student
in astronomy approaching the subject of astronomical optics for the first time.
Although the basic principles of optics are discussed, it is assumed that the reader
has the equivalent of an intermediate-level optics course at the undergraduate
level. This book should also serve as a usefiil reference for active researchers.
Because the presentation is not simply a compilation of types of telescopes
and spectrometers, the reader should consult the original sources for details on
specific instruments or telescopes. I have given an expanded bibliography and list
of references, including conference proceedings, to facilitate fiirther exploration. I
have also added a table of symbols and their meanings as an aid to the reader.
A number of persons contributed directly or indirectly to the writing of the first
edition and this revision. First and foremost I thank Arthur Code, who gave me
the opportunity of participating in the development of the Wisconsin Experiment
Package of the first Orbiting Astronomical Observatory. Since that time I have
been privileged to draw upon his wealth of knowledge and to teach jointly with
him on one occasion a course on astronomical optics. For his contributions I am
especially gratefiil. My thanks also to Arthur Hoag, Robert Bless, and Donald
Osterbrock for their help and support over the years, and to Robert O'Dell for his
encouragement to take part in NASA's Hubble Space Telescope Project.
Although many persons contributed to this rework, I mention only a few by
name. Robert Lucke gave several pedagogical suggestions, especially on my
discussion of distortion, that have been incorporated into the text. Derek Salmon
asked some questions about misaligned telescopes and that section has been
greatly expanded in this edition. The excellent book Reflecting Telescope Optics I
by Raymond Wilson has been an important resource during the revision process.
For their input, and the numerous other comments I have received, I am gratefixl.
Finally, and most importantly, I acknowledge the support, encouragement, and
patience of my wife LaVem while I worked on both editions of this book.
Daniel J. Schroeder
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